'UMAR'S REIGN
After about two years of ruling, disease surrounded Abu Bakr who nominated 'Umar ibn al-Khattab as his successor though many celebrated personalities of the Islamic State objected this matter and complained about 'Umar's rudness. Nevertheless, Abu Bakr did not respond to such protest and went on stressing his unjustifiable dicision.1
The most distinctive feature of Abu Bakr's reign was persecuting the Prophet's family and divesting them of their sacredness that the Prophet (s), due to a divine instruction, cast on them. This matter in fact opened the door to the illegal rulers who reigned the Islamic ummah illegally to persecute them and treat them severely. This means tha Abu Bakr gave green light to the Umayyad rulers to perpetrate the massacre of Karbala during which Imam al-Husayn, along with his relatives and virtuous companions, was slain and his pure body was severed so crudely, and his harem, headed by Lady Zaynab, were taken as captives for nothing but their being the Ahl al-Bayt (s).
After Abu Bakr's death, 'Umar held the affairs of the Islamic ummah with an iron hand. His ruling was so rude that even the major companions of the Prophet (s), such as "Abdullah ibn 'Abbas, kept themselves away from him.2
In the same way as he did during Abu Bakr's reign, Imam 'Ali (a), the true leader of the Islamic ummah, isolated himself from the social and political life during 'Umar's reign, In fact, they tried their best to keep him away from any affair related to their government.3
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1- See Ibn Abi'l-Hadid, Sharh(u) Nahj al-Balaghah; 6:343.
2- For more details, see 'Abd-al-Husayn Sharafuddin, al-Nass wa al-Ijtihad.
3- See Ibn Abi'l-Hadid's Sharh (u) Nahj al-Blaghah; 9:28.
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Yet, they had to refer to him in every problem they faced.1
The Imam thus confided himself to his house while griefs, bitterness, and gloom were his only companions. like their father, Imam 'Ali's sons took part in the sadness that covered their house, and were so angry with 'Umar. Imam al-Husayn (a), once, shouted at 'Umar who was climbing the Prophet's minbar and asked him to descend since he -'Umar- was unworthy of that place.2
Lady Zaynab, too, had the same feeling towards 'Umar to whom she referred in a statement included by her historical speech addressed to Yazid in his palace:
"و سيعلم من سول لك و مكنك من رقاب المسلمين..."
"The one who seduced you and gave you the power due to which you are ruling over the Muslims shall certainly know..."
At any rate, 'Umar acted in the Islamic ummah according to his personal opinions. For example, he hated the Persians very much that they, in return, have hated him. He prevented any of them to enter Medina city, the capital of Islam state, unless he would be under full age, and decided that they have no right to inherit except those who were born in the Arab lands.3
As a result, 'Umar was assassinated by a Persian slave whom he humiliated and ridiculed.4
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1- For details, see, for instance, Qada al-Imam 'Ali, In fact, all books that dealt with the Islamic history have mentioned many narrations showing 'Umar ibn al-Khattab's frequent reference to Imam 'Ali in every problem he faced. Moreover, 'Umar's famous saying: "Without 'Ali, 'Umar would certainly have perished," and many other like ones have been mentioned in every book dealing with 'Umar's reign.
2- See Baqir Sharif al-Qarashi's al-Sayyidah Zaynab; 114.
3- See Malik ibn Anas's al-Muwatta'; 2:12.
4- See al-Mas'udi's Muruj al-Dhahab; 2:212, and al-Isti'ab (published in the amrgins of al-Isabah fi Ma'rifat al-sahabah); 2:461.
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In his final days, 'Umar thought for quiet a while whom should he assaign for the leadership of the Islamic ummah. As he recalled his old associates who participated actively in the implementation of the plan of taking the Prophet's family away from leadership, he showed sadness for them, for death wrenched them away.
Finally, he put a mean plot due to which Imam 'Ali named his unsubstantiated play as Shura, He decided to choose six personalities who should nominate one of them for the caliphate. After 'Umar's death, the six persons held their meeting.
After long discussions and disputations, 'Uthman ibn 'Affan, the representative of the Umayyad dynasty, was selected as the coming caliph. From its first spark, the one and only purpose beyond fabricating the emaciated play of Shura, along with its funny stipulations put by 'Umar, was to nominat 'Uthman as the caliph and to take Imam 'Ali away from this position.
'Umar's Shura, in fact, brought about seditions and disorder for the Islamic ummah. It was an important step in enabling the mortal enemies of Islam, the Umayyad family, to come to power and take revenge for their indiviauals whom were killed during the battle of Badr at the hands of Imam 'Ali, the Hashemite youths, and the pure Muslims.
'UTHMAN'S REIGN
Once 'Uthman held leadership, the Umayyad and the Abu Ma'it's families surrounded him and controlled on the ummah's destiny, 'Uthman loved his relatives, the Umayyad family, and lost himself in the loyalty to them.1 As a result, all the offices of the state were in their hands and all the fortunes of Muslims became theirs exclusively. Accordingly, disorder, rebellion, and public anarchy spread throughout the provinces of the state, Moreover, 'Uthman
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1-See Ahmad ibn Hanbal's al-Musnad; 1;62.
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persecuted the foremost Muslims and the authorities for the ummah, such as Abu Dhar al-Ghifari, 'Abdullah ibn Mas'ud, and 'Ammar ibn Yasir, Even 'A'ishah, the Prophet's widow and Abu Bakr's Daughter, oppesed 'Uthman, accused him of atheism, and urged people to kill him.
The matter reached its climax when complete provinces, such as Iraq and Egypt, mutinied. Some military phalanxes, as well, directed towards Medina, surrounded 'Uthman's house, and demanded with taking Marwan ibn al-Hakam and the Umayyad individuals away from the state's office or abdicating his position.
He in the first place, promised the mutineers he would respond to them, but he did not. They therefore assassinated him so violently and left his dead body in one of the dunghills of Medina without permitting anyone to bury it. However, Imam 'Ali asked the mutineers to bury the dead body, and they had to accept.
By closing the final part of Uthman's reign, a new page of the Islamic history began. Without the sedition matters that 'A'ishah, Mu'awiyah, Talhah, and al-Zubayr aroused against Imam 'Ali's government, his reign would have rectified all the problems that the three caliphs caused to the ummah.
IMAM 'ALI'S REIGN
After they had overthrown 'Uthman's government, the mutineers surrounded Imam 'Ali (a) and declared that they unanimously select him for the leadership of the Islamic ummah. As he anticipated the coming crises, the Imam (a) refused, but the publics insisted and declared that they would not opt for anyone else, and that the Islamic ummah would be without leader if he would refuse.
Thus, the Imam (a) had to accept, and the publics hurried to pay homage to him. Talhah, al-Zubyr, the military forces, the foremost warrriors and authotities of Islam, and
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all the publics paid homage to the Imam (a).1 In fact, none of the first three caliphs, any ruler of the Islamic state, won such a non-compulsory homage except Imam 'Ali (a).
In the same way as they received the prophethood of Prophet Muhammad (s), the tribes of Quraysh received the leadership of Imam 'Ali (a) with discomfort and gloominess.2 They know the Imam (a) from another angle; it is he who beheaded their masters and crushed their pride under the pennon of Islam.3 They also knew that Imam(a) would never neglect their plundering the public treasures during the dark reign of 'Uthman.
As soon as he held the position of leadership, Imam 'Ali (a), the one and only deserver of the ephithet of Amir al-Mu'minin -the commander of the faithful believers- decided to confiscate all the fortunes that 'Uthman robbed from the public treasure and gave exclusively to his faithless relatives, he then deposed 'Uthma's officials who spread unjustice and persecution throughout the Islamic ummah. As a third step in his program of social justice, the Imam (a)declared equality among people and cancelled any class distinction.4
On this righteous plan, Imam 'Ali (a) educated his sons who raised his slogan of justice, fought for its sake, and challenged all its oppressors and violators.
REBELLION AGAINST THE IMAM
Because Imam 'Ali (a) insisted on applying the instructions of the Holy Qur'an and the Sunnah honestly and impartially, many straying powers opposed him so as to
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1- See Ibn 'Abd-Rabbuh's al-'Iqd al-Farid; 3:93.
2- See Ahmad Husayn Ya'qub's The Conception of the Sahaba's Ultimate Decency and the political Leadership in Islam; translated by Badr Shahin, Pub. Ansariyan Publications, 1999.
3- See al-Ya'qubi's al-Tarikh; 2:155.
4- See Ansab al-Ashraf; 1:160 ( part 1).
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safeguard their personal interests that they obtained illegally.
The first ones to declare rebellion against Imam 'Ali's governmet were Talhah and al-Zubayr, Because the Imam treated them just like any other Muslim and refused to give them privileges at the expense of the others, they mutinied against him and breached the homage that they had paid to him. He also refused to invest them with any official position because he knew their greediness.
One Day, they both asked the Imam's permission to leave for Mecca for performing 'Umrah,1 The Imam gazed at them and said:
"By Allah I swear, you do not intend to perform 'Umrah. You intended to mutiny and breach your homage to me."
However, the Imam (a) permitted them after he had asked them to pay homage to him again. Without hesitation, they did and swore they would never mutiny.
As soon as they fled to Mecca, they joined 'A'ishah.
Even though she was in the lead of those who revolted against 'Uthman ibn "Affan and decided his apostasy, 'A'ishah could not stand the news of Imam 'Ali's undertaking the position of the Islamic ummah's leadership, because of her uncontrollable malice towards him.
Thus, 'A'ishah's situation towards 'Uthman changed completely. She began to mourn for him and betake his assassination as a pretext to overthrow the Imam's government.2
Talhah and al-Zubayr, as well as the past profiteers of 'Uthman's government, joined 'A'ishah and decide to march towards Basra for fighting against the Imam's authorities.
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1- 'Umrah is non-obligatory pilgrimage to the Holy house of Allah in Mecca. It is also called the Minor Hajj.
2- See Ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Tarikh al-Umam wa al-Muluk; vol. 3, p, 454.
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The lawless mutineers seduced 'A'ishah by mounting her on a camel1 and calling her their mother. When she arrived in a place, dogs received her companions and her with barking. The barking reminded her of a word she had heard from the Holy Prophet (s). She asked in a terrified tone, "What is this place called?"
"It is called al-Hawb'ab," she was answered.
The moment this name came to her ear, she became panic-stricken and asked them to take her back home. When she was asked for a reason, she answered that she once had heard the Prophet (s) saying to his wives, "I see coming that the dogs of al-Haw'ab will bark at one of you. Do not be it, little reddish one!2"3
All the mutineers' efforts to make 'A'ishah change her decision failed: therefore, they, led by Talhah and al-Zubayr, bribed some individuals to come and witness that the place was not called al-Haw'ab. That was the first perjury in Islam.4 Unfortunately, 'A'ishah was deceived by that false testimony.
When the lawless mutineers arrived in the suburbs of Basra, 'Uthman ibn Hanif, the governor of Basra, sent Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali to see the matter. The man met 'A'ishah and al-Zubayr and discussed the matter with them so logically. Yet, they did not respond to him.
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1- See Ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Tarikh al-Umam wa al-Muluk; vol.3, p,475.
2- 'A'ishah was called 'Humayra -the little reddish one-'
3- It is recorded in Ibn Abi'l-Hadid's Sharh(u) Nahj al-Balaghah; 2:497, that 'Abdullah ibn 'Abbas narrated that Prophet Muhammad (s) once said to his wives who were all present before him, "Which one of you will be the rider of the giant camel and the dogs of al-Haw'ab will bark at her? To the right and left of this one will be numerous killed ones. All of them shall be in Hell. She will hardly escape."
4- See al-Mas'udi's Muruj al-Dhahab; 2:343 and al-ya'qubi's al-Tarikh; 2:181.
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Abu al-Aswad told the governor that they had decided to fight. So, the two parties agreed on a temporary peace treaty as they waited for Imam 'Ali's opinion.
Nonetheless, 'A'ishah's party breached the traty, attacked the governor, arrested and tortured him, robbed the public treasury, and aroused sedition in Basra.
The Imam (a) then led his army to Basra to fight against the mutineers, As soon as he arrived there, he sent 'Abdullah ibn 'Abbas and Zyad ibn Sawhan to call them to peace. But their call was not responded. He then sent a generous boy and ordered him to carry a cope of the Holy Qur'an and call them to peace an apply the instructions of the Qur'an.
The mutineers attacked him, severed his both hands, and threw darts at him until he daparted life.
The Imam (a) then had to attack the other camp, which was led by 'A'ishah. The mutineers could not resist the Imams army; as a result, 'A'ishah tried to breath life in her soldier's determinations, but they were too weak to face his famous sword. They surrounded their mother's camel, and the Imam (a) ordered 'Ammar ibn Yasir and Malid al-Ashtar to cut the camel's legs because 'A'ishah's soldiers, according to the Imam's expression, had betaken that camel as center. They did, and thus the fighting ceased with the bitter defeat of the lawless mutineers. That fighting was called 'Battle of the Camel'.
The Imam (a) then issued a general amnesty1 and released 'A'ishah to go back to Medina.
From these events, Lady Zaynab realized, more deeply, the serious hostility that the tribes of Quraysh bore against her grandfather and father. She also understood the
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1- Imam 'Ali (a) pardoned all his enemies, such as 'Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr and Marwan ibn al-Hakam, and did not punish anyone of them. For more details, refer to al-Ya'qubi's al-Tarikh.
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factuality of the Islamic ummah and the Muslims' duties to it.
MU'AWIYAH'S SEDITION
As a matter of fact, 'A'ishah paved the way of mutiny to Mu'awiyah who, too betook the issue of 'Uthman's assassination as pretext to oppose the Imam's impartial government.
The one and only reason beyond Mu'awiyah's mutiny was that he knew for certain that the Imam would dismiss him from his position,1 divest him of all the fortunes that he usurped from the public treasury, and get even with him concerning his behaviors that violated Islam, such as wearing silk garment, using golden and silver bowls, and wasting huge riche in building palaces. Furthermore, the Imam (a) would not admit 'Umar's purposeful glorifying and supporting him.
At any rate, Mu'awiyah rejected the Imam's call to peace and paying homage to him. He gathered a big army and directed towards a place called Siffin on the Iraqi-Syrian borders, The first thing he did was occupying the two banks of the River Euphrates in order that the Imam's army would not find water.
On the other side, the Imam (a) readied for meeting the mutinous forces, His armies could not reach the Euphrates for supplying themselves with water. He therefore sent one of his companions to meet Mu'awiyah and convince him to let the Imam's army have water. Of course, Mu'awiyah refused out of his meanness. The Imam(a) then had to give orders of occupying the river and having water from it. the armies did, and the mutineers were defeated and taken away from the river's banks. Afterwards, the commanders of the
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1- since 'Umar's reign, Mu'awiyah ibn Abu-Sufyan, the mortal enemy of Islam and the son of the mortal enemy of Islam, was holding the posotion of governing Syria.
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Imam's army found it a good opportunity to make an eye for an eye, by depriving Mu'awiyah's army of reaching the river, but the Imam (a), out of his matchless humanity and high morals, refused.
As an attempt to prevent bloodshed, Imam 'Ali (a) sent messengers of peace to Mu'awiyah's camp, but the latter refused and resolved to enter the war against the Imam (a). As a consequence, the Imam had to battle against them. First of all, there were individual campaigns from both parties, because the Imam(a) hoped for Mu'awiyah's responding to calls of peace. When the Imam (a) despaired and knew that Mu'awiyah was preparing for general attack, he had to recruit his soldiers. Thus, a fierce war, during which great figures of Islam such as 'Ammar ibn Yasir were martyred, broke out.1
The army of Mu'awiyah was defeated and their leader was about to flee. As a result of a secret conspiracy between 'Amr ibn al-As, the counselor of Mu'awiyah, and some commanders of the Imam's army, headed by al-Ash'ath ibn Qays, the Syrian army raised copies of the Holy Qur'an on spearheads and called for its being the arbiter of the dispute.
Hence, the conspires in the Imam's army urged importunately the others to respond to the Syrina army's call. Event though he had known the reality of that trick, the Imam(a) had nothing to do other than responding to his army's demanding calls to peace. Before so, he had proven the falsity of Mu'awiyah's trick and informed that Mu'awiyah and his party had never respected or even believed in the Qur'an, but the soldiers refused the Imam's words, responded to Mu'awiyah's trick, and even threatened to kill him if he would not respond.
That was not all, the Imam's soldiers selected Abu Musa al-Ash'ari to be their representative in the arbitration between Imam 'Ali and Mu'awiyah, while the Imam's nominee was 'Abdullah ibn 'Abbas, the great Islamic authority. Once again, the Imam's soldiers refused his representative and insisted on choosing the mindless Abu Musa. On the other side, the Syrian army selected 'Amr ibn al-As the foxy.
When the two met for appointing the time of arbitration 'Amr ibn al-As convinced, delusively, the mindless representative of the Imam's armey that they both should depose the two parties, Mu'awiyah and Imam 'Ali, so as to save the Islamic ummah from conflicts. The trick of the focxy representative of Mu'wiyah's party worked with the mindless representative of the Imam's. Before the delegates of the two parties, Amr cheated Abu Musa to climb the minbar and declare his decision of deposing the Imam. After him, 'Amr climbed the minbar and decided to depose the Imam and nominate Mu'awiyah as the leader of the ummah.
Thus, Abu Musa al-Ash'ari had to flee towards Mecca after he had invented sedition and schism in the Imam's party.
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1- That war was called 'Battle of Siffin'.