The Transfer of the Caliphate to Mu'wiyah and
Its Transformation into a Hereditary Monarchy
After the death of 'Ali, his son, Hasan ibn 'Ali, who is recognized by the Shi ah as their second Imam, became caliph. This designation occurred in accordance with 'All's last will and testament and also by the allegiance of the community to Hasan. But Mu'awiyah did not remain quiet before this event.
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He marched with his army toward Iraq, which was then the capital of the caliphate, and began to wage war against Hasan.
Through different intrigues and the payment of great sums of money, Mu'awiyah was able gradually to corrupt the aides and generals of Hasan. Finally, he was able to force Hasan to hand the caliphate over to him so as to avoid bloodshed and to make peace.
1 Hasan handed the caliphate to Mu'awiyah on the condition that the caliphate would be returned to him after the death of Mu'awiyah and that no harm would come to his partisans.
2
In the year 40/661, Mu'awiyah finally gained control of the caliphate. He then set out immediately for Iraq and in a speech to the people of that land said: "I did not fight against you for the sake of the prayers or of fasting. These acts you can perform yourself. What I wanted to accomplish was to rule over you and this end I have achieved." He also said, "The agreement I made with Hasan is null and void. It lies trampled under my feet."
3 With this declaration, Mu' awiyah made known to the people the real character of his government and revealed the nature of the program he had in mind.
sultanate and a monarchy than a caliphate and vicegerency of the Prophet of Godin its traitional Islamic sense. That is why some who were admitted to his court addressed him as "king." 4He indicated in his declaration that he would separate religion from politics and would not give any guarantees concerning religious duties and regulations. He would spend all his force to preserve and to keep alive his own power, whatever might be the cost. Obviously, a government of such a nature is more of a sultanat and a monarchy than a caliphate and vicegerency of the Prophet of God in its traditional Islamic sense. That is why some who were admitted to his court addressed him as "king".
4
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1 Ya'qubi, vol, 11, pp. 191, and other books of history.
2 Ya'qubi, vol, 115, pp. 192; Abu 'l-Fida', Vol.I, pp.183.
3 Al-Nisa'ih al-Kifayah of Muhammad al-'Alawi, Baghdad, 1368, vol. II, pp.161 and others.
4 Ya'qubi, vol, 11, pp. 193.
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He himself in some private gatherings interpreted his government as a monarchy,
1 while in public he always introduced himself as the caliph.
Naturally, any monarchy that is based on force carries with it inherently the principle of inheritance. Mu'awiyah, too, finally realized this fact, and chose his son, Yazid who was a heedless young man without the least religious personality,
2 as the "crown prince" and his successor. This act was to be the cause of many regrettable events in the future. Mu'awiyah had previously indicated that he would refuse to permit Hasan ibn 'Ali to succeed him as caliph and that he had other thoughts in mind. Therefore, he had caused Hasan to be killed by poisoning,
3 thus preparing the way for his son, Yazid.
In breaking his agreement with Hasan, Mu'awiyah made it clear that he would never permit the Shi' ah of the Household of the Prophet to live in a peaceful and secure environment and continue their activity as before, and he carried into action this very intention. It has been said that he went so far as to declare that whoever would transmit a hadith in praise of the virtues of the Household of the Prophet would have no immunity or protection concerning his life, merchandise and property.
4 At the same time, he ordered that whoever could recite a hadith in praise of the other companions or caliphs would be given
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1 Ya'qubi, vol, 115 pp. 207.
2 Yazid was a lecherous and self-indulgent person. He was always drunk and wore silk and unbecoming dress. His nightly parties were combined with music and wine. He had a dog and a monkey which were always with him as companions with which he amused himself. His monkey was named Abu-Qays. He would dress him in beautiful attire and make him be present at his drinking parties. Sometimes, he would mount him on horseback and send him to races. Ya'qubi, vol. 11, pp. 196; Muruj al-Dhahab, vol. III, pp. 77
3 Muruj al-Dhahab, vol. III, pp. 5; Abu '1-Fida', vol. I, pp. 183.
4 Al-Nasa'ih al-Kifayah, pp. 72, recounted from Kitab al-Ahdath.
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sufficient reward. As a result, a noticeable number of hadiths were recorded at this time praising the companions, some of which are of doubtful authenticity.
1 He ordered pejorative comments to be made about 'Ali from the pulpits of mosques throughout the lands of Islam, while he himself sought to revile 'Ali. This command continued to be more or less in effect until the caliphate of 'Umar ibn 'Abd al- 'Aziz, when it was discontinued.
2 With the help of his agents and lieutenants, Mu'awiyah caused the elite and the most outstanding among the partisans of 'Ali to be put to death and the heads of some of them to be carried on lances throughout different cities.
3 The majority of Shiites were forced to disown and even curse 'Ali and to express their disdain for him. If they refused, they were put to death.
The Bleakest Days of Shi'ism
The most difficult period for Shi'ism was the twenty-year rule of Mu'awiyah, during which the Shi'ites had no protection and most of them were considered as marked characters, under suspicion and hunted down by the state. Two of the leaders of Shi'ism who lived at this time, Imams Hasan and Husayn, did not possess any means whatsoever to change the negative and oppressive circumstances in which they lived. Husayn, the third Imam of Shi'ism, had no possibility of freeing the Shi' ites from persecution in the ten years he was Imam during Mu'awiyah's caliphate, and when he rebelled during the caliphate of Yazid, he was massacred along with all his aides and children.
Certain people in the Sunni world explain as pardonable the arbitrary unjust and irresponsible actions carried out at this time by Mu 'awiyah and his aides and lieutenants, some of
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1 Ya'qubi, vol. II, pp. 199 and 210; Abu 'l-Fida', vlo.l, pp. 186; Muruj al-Dhahab, vol, III, pp. 33 and 35.
2 Al-Nasa'ih al-Kafiyah, pp, 72-73.
3 Al-Nasa'ih al-Kafiyah, pp, 58, 64, 77-78.
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whom were, like Mu'awiyah himself, among the companions. This group reasons that according to certain hadiths of the Holy Prophet, all the companions could practice ijtihad, that they were excused by God for the sins they committed, and that God was satisfied with them and forgave them whatever wrong they might have performed. The Shi'ites, however, do not accept this argument for two reasons:
1. It is not conceivable that a leader of human society like the Prophet should rise in order to revivify truth, justice and freedom and to persuade a group of people to accept his beliefs—a group all of whose members had sacrificed their very existence in order to accomplish this sacred end—and then as soon as this end is accomplished give his aides and companions complete freedom to do with these sacred laws as they will. It is not possible to believe that the Holy Prophet would have forgiven the companions for whatever wrong action they might have performed. Such indifference to the type of action performed by them would have only destroyed the structure, which the Holy Prophet had built with the same means that he had used to construct it.
2. Those sayings which depict the companions as inviolable and pardoned in advance for every act they might perform, even one unlawful or inadmissible, are most likely apocryphal; the authenticity of many of them has not been fully established by traditional methods. Moreover, it is known historically that the companions did not deal with one another as if they were inviolable and pardoned for all their sin's and wrongdoings. Therefore, even judging by the way the companions acted and dealt with each other, it can be concluded that such sayings cannot be literally true in the way some have understood them. If they do contain an aspect of the truth, it is in indicating the legal inviolability of the companions and the sanctification which they enjoyed generally as a group because of their proximity to the Holy Prophet. The expression of God's satisfaction with the companions in the Holy Qur'an, because of
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the services they had rendered in obeying His Command,
1 refers to their past actions, and to God's satisfaction with them in the past, not to whatever action each one of them might perform in the future.
The Establishment of Umayyad Rule
In the year 60/680, Mu awiyah died and his son, Yazid, became caliph, as the result of the allegiance which his father had obtained for him from the powerful political and military leaders of the community. From the testimony of historical documents, it can be seen clearly that Yazid had no religious character at all and that even during the lifetime of his father he was oblivious to the principles and regulations of Islam. At that time, his only interest was debauchery and frivolity. During his three years of caliphate, he was the cause of calamities that had no precedent in the history of Islam, despite all the strife that had occurred before him.
During the first year of Yazid's rule, Imam Husayn, the grandson of the Holy Prophet, was massacred in the most atrocious manner, along with his children, relatives and friends. Yazid even had some of the women and children of the Household of the Prophet killed and their heads displayed in different cities.
2 During the second year of his rule, he ordered a general massacre of Medina and for three days gave his soldiers freedom to kill, loot and take the women of the city.
3 During the third year, he had the sacred Ka bah destroyed and burned.
4
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1 See Qur'an, 1X, 100.
2 Ya'qubi, vol. III, pp. 216; Abu 'l-Fida', vol. I, pp. 190; Muruj al-Dhahah, vol. III, pp. 64, and other books of Tarikh (history).
3 Ya'qubi, vol. II, pp. 223; Abu 'l-Fida', vol. I, pp. 192; Muruj al-Dhahab, vol. III, pp. 78.
4 Ya'qubi, vol. II, pp. 224; Abu 'l-Fida', vol. I, pp. 192; Muruj al-Dhahab, vol. III, pp. 81.
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Following Yazid, the family of Marw?n gained possession of the caliphate, according to details that are recorded in the history books. The role of this eleven-member group, which lasted for nearly seventy years, was successful politically but from the point of view of purely religious values, it fell short of Islamic ideals and practices. Islamic society was dominated by the Arab element alone and non-Arabs were subordinated to the Arabs. In fact, a strong Arab empire was created which gave itself the name of an Islamic caliphate. During this period, some of the caliphs were indifferent to religious sentiments to the extent that one of them—who was the "vicegerent of the Holy Prophet" and was regarded as the protector of religion—decided without showing any respect for Islamic practices and the feelings of Muslims to construct a room above the Ka bah so that he could have a play to enjoy and amuse himself during the annual pilgrimage.
1 It is even recounted of one of these caliphs that he made the Holy Qur'an a target for his arrow and in a poem composed to the Qur'an said, "On the Day of Judgment when you appear before God, tell Him 'the caliph tore me.'"
2
Naturally the Shi'ites, whose basic differences with the Sunnis were in the two questions of the Islamic caliphate and religious authority, were passing through bitter and difficult days in this dark period. Yet, in spite of the unjust and irresponsible ways of the governments of the time, the asceticism and purity of the leaders of the Household of the Prophet made the Shi ites each day even more determined to hold on to their beliefs. Of particular importance was the tragic death of Husayn, the third Imam, which played a major role in the spread of Shi'ism, especially in regions away from the center of the caliphate, such as Iraq, the Yemen and Persia. This can be seen through the fact that during the period of the fifth Imam, before the end of the first Islamic century, and less than forty years after the death of Husayn, the Shi'ites took advantage of the internal
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1 Walid ibn Yazid; mentioned in Ya'qubi, vol. III, pp. 73.
2 Walid ibn Yazid; mentioned in Muruj al-Dhahab, vol. III, pp. 228.
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differences and weaknesses in the Umayyad government and began to organize themselves, flocking to the side of the fifth Imam. People came from all Islamic countries like a flood to his door to collect hadith and to learn the Islamic science. The first century had not yet ended when a few of the leaders who were influential in the government established the city of Qum in Persia and made it a Shi'ite settlement. But even then, the Shi ah continued to live for the most part in hiding and followed their religious life secretly without external manifestations.
1
Several times, the descendants of the Prophet (who are called in Persian sadat-i 'alawi) rebelled against the injustice of the government, but each time they were defeated and usually lost their lives. The severe and unscrupulous government of the time did not overlook any means of crushing them. The body of Zayd, the leader of Zaydi Shi ism, was dug out of the grave and hanged; then after remaining on the gallows for three years, it was brought down and burned, its ashes being thrown to the wind.
2 The SM.' ites believe that the fourth and fifth Imams were poisoned by the Umayyads as the second and third Imams had been killed by them before.
3
The calamities brought about by the Umayyads were so open and unveiled that the majority of the Sunnis, although they believed generally that it was their duty to obey the caliphs, felt the pangs of their religious conscience and were forced to divide the caliphs into two groups. They came to distinguish between the "rightly guided caliphs" (khulafa rashidun) who are the first four caliphs after the death of the Holy Prophet (Abu-Bakr, Umar, Uthman and 'All), and the others who began with Mu' awiyah and who did not possess by any means the religious virtues of the rightly guided caliphs.
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1 Mu'jam al-Buldan, Yaqut Hamawi, Beirut, 1957.
2 Muruj al-Dhahab, vol. III, pp. 217-219; Ya' qubi, vol. II, pp. 66.
3 Bihar al-Anwar, vol. XII, on the life of Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq.
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The Umayyads caused so much public hatred as a result of their injustice and heedlessness during their rule that after the definitive defeat and death of the last Umayyad caliph, his two sons and a number of their family encountered great difficulties in escaping from the capital. No matter where they turned, no one would give them shelter. Finally, after much wandering in the deserts of Nubia, Abyssinia, and Bajawah (between Nubia and Abyssinia) during which many of them died from hunger and thirst, they came to Bab al-Mandab of the Yemen. Then they acquired travel expenses from the people through begging and set out for Mecca dressed as porters. In Mecca, they 'finally succeeded in disappearing among the mass of the people.
1
Shi'ism During the 2nd/8th Century
During the latter part of the first third of the 2nd/8th century, following a series of revolutions and bloody wars throughout the Islamic world which were due to the injustice, repressions and wrongdoings of the Umayyads, there began an anti-Umayyad movement in the name of the Household of the Prophet in Khurasan in Persia. The leader of this movement was the Persian general, Abu-Muslim Marw?zi, who rebelled against Umayyad rule and advanced his cause step by step until he was able to overthrow the Umayyad government.
2
Although this movement originated from a profound Shi'ite background and came into being more or less with the claim of wanting to avenge the blood of the Household of the Prophet, and although people were even asked secretly to give allegiance to a qualified member of the family of the Prophet, it did not rise directly as a result of the instructions of the Imams. This is witnessed by the fact that when Abu-Muslim offered the caliphate to the sixth Imam in Medina, he rejected it completely
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1 Ya'qubi, vol. III, pp. 84.
2 Ya'qubi, vol. III, pp. 79; Abu 'l-Fida', vol, I, pp. 208, and other books of history.
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saying "You are not one of my men and the time is not my time."
1
Finally, the 'Abbasids gained the caliphate in the name of the family of the Prophet
2 and at the beginning showed some kindness to people in general and to the descendants of the Prophet in particular. In the name of avenging the martyrdom of the family of the Prophet, they massacred the Umayyads, going to the extent of opening their graves and burning whatever they found in them.
3 But soon, they began to follow the unjust ways of the Umayyads and did not abstain in any way from injustice and irresponsible action. Abu-Hanifah, the founder of one of the four Sunni schools of law, was imprisoned by al-Mansur and tortured.
4 Ibn Hanbal, the founder of another school of law, was whipped.
5 The sixth Imam died from poisoning after much torture and pain.
6 The descendants of the Holy Prophet were sometimes beheaded in groups, buried alive or even placed within walls of government buildings under construction.
H?run al-Rashid, the 'Abbasid caliph, during whose reign the Islamic empire reached the apogee of its expansion and power, occasionally would look at the sun and address it in these words: "Shine wherever thou wilt, thou shalt never be able to leave my kingdom." On the one hand, his amiss were advancing in the East and West, on the other hand, a few steps from the palace of the caliph, and without his knowledge, officials had decided on their own to collect tolls from people who wanted to cross the Baghdad. Bridge. Even one day when the caliph
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1 Ya'qubi, vol. III, pp. 86; Muruj al-Dhahab, vol, III, pp. 268.
2 Ya'qubi, vol, III, pp. 86, Muruj al-Dhahab, vol. III, p, 270.
3 Ya'qubi, vol. III, pp. 91-96; Abu 'l-Fida', vol, I, pp. 212.
4 Abu 'l-Fida', vo1. II, pp. 6.
5 Ya'qubi, vol, III, pp. 198; Abu '1-Fida', vol. II, pp. 33.
6 Bihar al-Anwar, vol. XII, on the life of Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq.
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himself wanted to cross the bridge, he was stopped and asked to pay the toll.
1
A singer, by chanting two lascivious verses, incited the passions of the 'Abbasid caliph, Amin who awarded him three million dirhams. The chanter in joy threw himself at the feet of the caliph saying, "Oh, leader of the faithful! You give me all this money?" The caliph answered, "It does not matte'. We receive this money from an unknown part of the country."
2
The bewildering amount of wealth that was pouring every year from all corners of the Islamic world into the public treasury in the capital helped in creating luxury and a mundane atmosphere. Much of it in fact was often spent for the pleasures and iniquities of the caliph of the time. The number of beautiful slave girls in the court of some of the caliphs exceeded thousands. By the dissolution of Umayyad rule and the establishment of the Abbasids, Shi'ism did not benefit in any way. Its repressive and unjust opponents merely changed their name.
Shi'ism in the 3rd/9th Century
At the beginning of the 3rd/9th century, Shi' ism was able to breathe once again. This more favorable condition was first of all, due to the fact that many scientific and philosophical books were translated from Greek, Syriac and other languages into Arabic, and people eagerly studied the intellectual and rational sciences. Moreover, al-Ma'miin, the 'Abbasid caliph from 198/813 to 218/833, had Mu tazilite leanings and since in his religious views, he favored intellectual demonstration, he was
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1 Al-Aghani of Abu 'l-Faraj Isfahani, Cairo, 1345-51, the story of the bridge of Baghdad.
2 Al-Aghani of Abu 'l-Faraj lsfahani, Cairo, 1345-51, the story of Amin.
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more inclined to give complete freedom to the discussion and propagation of different religious views. Shi ite theologians and scholars took full advantage of this freedom and did their utmost to further scholarly activities and propagate Shi ite teachings. Also, al-Ma'mun, following the demands of the political forces at the time, had made the eighth Shi' ite Imam his successor, as is recounted in most standard histories. As a result, the descendants of the Holy Prophet and their friends were to a certain extent free from pressures from the government and enjoyed some degree of liberty. Yet before long the cutting edge of the sword once again turned towards the Shi ites and the forgotten ways of the past came upon them again. This was particularly true in the case of al-Mutawakkil (233/847-247/861) who held a special enmity towards 'Ali and the Shi' ites. By his order, the tomb of the third Imam in Karbala' was completely demolished.
1
Shi'ism in the 4th/10th Century
In the 4th/10th century, certain conditions again prevailed which aided greatly the spread and strengthening of Shi' ism. Among them were the weaknesses that appeared in the central 'Abbasid government and administration and the appearance of the Buyid rulers. The Buyids, who were Shi ite, had the greatest influence not only in the provinces of Persia but also in the capital of the caliphate in Baghdad, and even upon the caliph himself. This new strength of considerable proportions enabled the Shi' ites to stand up before their opponents who previously had tried to crush them by relying upon the power of the caliphate. It also made it possible for the Shi' ites to propagate their religious views openly.
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1 Abu 'l-Fida' and other histories.
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As recorded by historians, during this century most of the Arabian Peninsula was Shi'ite with the exception of some of the big cities. Even some of the major cities, like Hajar, Oman, and Sa'dah were Shi'ite. In Basra, which had always been a Sunni city and competed with Kufah which was considered a Shi'ite center, there appeared a notable group of Shi'ites. Also in Tripoli, Nablus, Tiberius, Aleppo, Nayshapur and Herat there were many Shi ites, while Ahwaz and the coast of the Persian Gulf on the Persian side were also Shi'ites.
1
At the beginning of this century, N?sir Utrush, after many years of propagation of his religious mission in northern Persia, gained power in Tabaristan and established a kingdom which continued for several generations after him. Before Utrush, Hasan ibnZayd al- 'Alawi had reigned for many years in Tabaristan.
2 Also in this period, the Fatimids, who were Isma'ili, conquered Egypt and organized a caliphate which lasted for over two centuries (296/908-567/1171).
3 Often disputation and fighting occurred in major cities like Baghdad, Cairo and Nayshapur between Shi'ites and Sunnis, in some of which the Shi ites would gain the upper hand and come out victorious.
Shi'ism from the 5th/11th to the 9th/15th Centuries
From the 5th/11th to the 9th/15th centuries, Shi'ism continued to expand as it had done in the 4th/10th century.
4 Many kings and rulers who were Shi ite appeared in different parts of the
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1 Al-Hadarah al-Isl?miyyah of Adam Mez, Cairo, 1366, vol. I, pp. 97.
2 Muruj al-Dhahab, vol. IV, pp. 373; al-Milal wa 'l-Nihal of Shahristani, Cairo, 1368, vol. 1, pp. 254.
3 Abu 'l-Fida', vol. II, pp. 63 and vol. III, pp. 50.
4 See the books of history: al-K?mil of lbn Athir, Cairo, 1348; Rawdat al-Safa' and Habib al-Siyar of Khwand Mir, Tehran. 1333.
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Islamic world and propagated Shi'ism. Toward the end of the 5th/11th century, the missionary activity of Isma'ilism took root in the fort of Alamut and for nearly a century and a half the Isma'ilis lived in complete independence in the central regions of Persia. Also the Sadat-i Mar'ashi, who were descendants of the Holy Prophet, ruled for many years in Mazandaran (Tabaristan).
1 Shah Muhammad Khudabandah one of the well-known Mongol rulers, became Shi'ite and his descendants ruled for many years in Persia and were instrumental in spreading Shi'ism.
2 Mention must also be made of the kings of the Aq Qoyunlu and Qara Qoyunlu dynasties who ruled in Tabriz and whose domain extended to Fars and Kerman,
3 as well as of the Fatimid government which was ruling in Egypt.
Of course, religious freedom and the possibility of exerting religious power by the populace differed under different rulers. For example, with the termination of Fatimid rule and coming to power of the Ayyubids, the scene changed completely and the Shi'ite population of Egypt and Syria lost its religious independence. Many of the Shi' ites of Syria were killed during this period merely on the accusation of following Shi'ism. One of these was al-Shahid al-Awwal (the First Martyr) Muhammad ibn Makki, one of the great figures in Shi'ite jurisprudence, who was killed in Damascus in 786/1384.
4 Also Shaykh al-Ishraq Shihab al-Din Sahrawardi was killed in Aleppo on the accusation that he was cultivating Batini teachings and philosophy.
5 Altogether during this period, Shi' ism was
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1 Al-Kamil of lbn Athir, Cairo, 1348; Rawdat al-Safa' and Habib a1-Siyar of Khwand Mir, Tehran. 1333.
2 Al-Kamil of lbn Athir, Cairo, 1348; Rawdat al-Safi' and Habib al-Siyar of Khwand Mir, Tehran. 1333.
3 Al-Kamil of 1bn Athir, Cairo, 1348; Rawdat al-Safa' and Habib al-Siyar of Khwand Mir, Tehran. 1333.
4 Rayhanat al-Adab of Muhammad 'Ali Tabrizi, Tehran 1326-32, vol. 11, pp. 365, and most works on the biography of men.
5 Rayhanat al-Adab, vol. II, pp. 380.
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growing from the point of view of numbers, even though its religious power and freedom depended upon local conditions and the rulers of the time. During this period, however, Shi'ism never became the official religion of any Muslim state.
Shi'ism in the 10th/16th and 11th/17th Centuries
In the loth/16th century, Isma'il who was of the household of Shaykh Safi al-Din Ardibili (d. 735/1334), a Sufi master and also a Shi' ite, began a revolt in Ardibil, with three hundred Sufis who were disciples of his forefathers, with the aim of establishing an independent and powerful Shi'ite country. In this way, he began the conquest of Persia and overcame the local feudal princes. After a series of bloody wars with local rulers and also the Ottomans who held the title of caliph, he succeeded in forming Persia piece by piece into a country and in making Shi ism the official religion in his kingdom.
1
After the death of Shah Isma'il, other Safavid kings reigned in Persia until the 12th/18th century and each continued to recognize Shi ism as the official religion of the country and further to strengthen its hold upon this land. At the height of their power, during the reign of Shah 'Abbas, the Safavids were able to increase the territorial expansion and the population of Persia to twice its present size.
2 As for other Muslim lands, the Shi ite population continued the same as before and increased only through the natural growth of population.
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1 Rawdat al-Safa', Habib al-Siyar and others.
2 Tarikh Alam Aray-i 'Abbasi of Iskandar Bayk, Tehran, 1334 AH solar.
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Shlism from the 12th/18th to the 14th/20th Centuries
During the past three centuries, Shi'ism has followed its natural rate of growth as before. At the present moment, during the latter part of the 14th/ loth century, Shi ism is recognized as the official religion of Iran, and in the Yemen and Iraq the majority of the population is Shi'ite. In nearly all lands where there are Muslims, one can find a certain number of Shi'ites. It has been said that altogether in the world today, there are about eighty to ninety million Shi'ites.
