CHAPTER TWO
DIVISIONS WITHIN SHI'ISM
Each religion possesses a certain number of primary principles, which form its essential basis and other principles of secondary importance. When the followers of a religion differ as to the nature of the primary principles and their secondary aspects but preserve a common basis, the result is called division (inshi'?b) within that religion. Such divisions exist in all traditions and religions, and more particularly in the four "revealed" religions
1 of Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Islam.
Shi'ism did not undergo any divisions during the Imamate of the first three Imams: 'All, Hasan and Husayn. But after the martyrdom of Husayn, the majority of the Shiites accepted the Imamate of 'Ali ibn Husayn al-Sajjad, while a minority known as the Kaysaniyyah believed that the third son of 'Ali, Muhammad Ibn al-Hanafiyyah was the fourth Imam as well as the promised Mandi, and that he had gone into occultation in the Radwa mountains
2 and one day would reappear. After the
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1 Editor's note: From the general theological prospective of Islam, the "revealed religions" are these possessing Divine Scriptures and usually numbered as above. This does not, however, prevent Muslims from believing in the universality of revelation which is particularly accented in Sufism. Whenever the situation arose, Muslims applied this principle outside the Semitic and Iranian monotheistic worlds, as for example when they encountered Hinduism whose divine origin many Muslim religious authorities admitted openly.
2 Editor's note: The Radwa mountains are a range located near Medina and well known for the role they played in early Islamic history.
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death of Imam al-Sajjad, the majority of the Shi'ites accepted as Imam his son, Muhammad al-Baqir while a minority followed Zayd al-Shahid, another son of Imam al-Sajjad, and became known as Zaydis. Following Imam Muhammad al-Baqir, the Shi ites accepted his son Ja far al-Sadiq as Imam and after the death of Imam Ja' far, the majority followed his son Imam Musa al-K?zim as the seventh Imam. However, one group followed the older son of the sixth Imam, who had died while his father was still alive, and when this latter group separated from the majority of Shi ites, it became known as Isma'ilis. Others accepted as Imam either 'Abdullah al-Aftah or Muhammad, both sons of the sixth Imam. Finally, another party stopped with the sixth Imam himself and considered him as the last Imam. In the same way, after the martyrdom of Imam Musa al-Kazim, the majority followed his son, 'All al-Rida, as the eighth Imam. However, some stopped with the seventh Imam and became known as the Waqifiyyah.
1
From the eighth Imam to the twelfth, whom the majority of the Shi'ites believe to be the promised Mandi, no division of any importance took place within Shi ism. Even if certain events occurred in the form of division, they lasted but a few days and dissolved by themselves. For example, Ja far the son of the tenth Imam, claimed to be Imam after the death of his brother, the eleventh Imam. A group of people followed him but scattered in a few days and Ja'far himself did not follow his claim any further. Furthermore, there are differences between Shi'ites in theological and juridical matters which must not be considered as divisions in religious schools. Also the Bahl and Baha'i sects, which like the B?tinis (the Qaramitah) differ in both the principles (usul) and branches (furu) of Islam from the Muslims, should not in any sense be considered as branches of Shi ism.
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1 Editor's note: It must be remembered that most of the branches cited here had very few adherents and are not in any way comparable to Twelve-Imam Shi'ism or Isma'ilism.
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The sects which separated from the majority of Shi'ites all dissolved within a short period, except two: the Zaydi and the Isma'ilis, which continue to exist until now. To this day, communities of these branches are active in various parts of the world such as the Yemen, India and Syria. Therefore, we shall limit our discussion to these two branches along with the majority of Shiites who are Twelvers.
Zaydism and Its Branches
The Zaydis are the followers of Zayd al-Shahid, the son of Imam al-Sajj?d. Zayd rebelled in 121/737 against the Umayyad caliph, Husham ibn 'Abd al-Malik, and a group paid allegiance to him. A battle ensued in Küfah between Zayd and the army of the caliph in which Zayd was killed. The followers of Zayd regard him as the fifth Imam of the Household of the Prophet. After him his son, Yahy? ibn Zayd, who rebelled against the caliph Walid ibn Yazid and was also killed, took his place. After Yahya, Muhammad ibn 'Abdullah and Ibrahim ibn 'Abdullah who revolted against the 'Abbasid caliph, Mansur al-Dawaniqi and were also killed, were chosen as Imams.
Henceforth for some time, there was disorder in Zaydi ranks until Nasir al-Utrush, a descendant of the brother of Zayd, arose in Khurasan. Being pursued by the governmental authorities in that region, he fled to Mazandaran (Tabaristan) whose people had not as yet accepted Islam. After thirteen years of missionary activity in this region, he brought a large number of people into the Zaydi branch of Islam. Then, in the year 301/913 with their aid, he conquered the region of Mazandaran, becoming himself Imam. For some time, his descendants continued to rule as Imams in that area.
According to Zaydi belief, any descendant of Fatimah (the daughter of the Prophet) who begins an uprising in the name of defending the truth may become Imam if he is learned in the religious sciences, ethically pure, courageous and generous. Yet for some time after Utrush and his descendants, there was no Imam who could bring about an insurrection with the sword
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until recently when, about sixty years ago, Imam Yahya revolted in the Yemen, which had been a part of the Ottoman Empire, made it independent, and began to rule there as Imam. His descendants continued to rule in that region as Imams until very recently.
At the beginning, the Zaydis, like Zayd himself, considered the first two caliphs, Abu-Bakr and 'Umar, as their Imams. But after a while, some of them began to delete the name of the first two caliphs from the list of Imams and placed 'Ali as the first Imam.
From what is known of Zaydi beliefs, it can be said that in the principles of Islam (usul), they follow a path close to that of the Mu' tazilites, while in the branches or derivative institutions of the law (furu) they apply the jurisprudence of Abu-Hanifah, the founder of one of the four Sunni schools of law. They also differ among themselves concerning certain problems.
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Isma'ilism and Its Branches
Imam Ja 'far al-Sadiq had a son named Ismail who was the oldest of his children. Isma'il died during the lifetime of his father who summoned witnesses to his death, including the governor of Medina.
2 Concerning this question, some believed that Ismail did not die but went into occultation, that he would appear again and would be the promised Mandi. They further believed that the summoning of witnesses on the part of the Imam for Ismail's death was a way of hiding the truth in fear of al-Mansur, the 'Abbasid caliph. Another group believed that the true Imam was Ismail whose death meant the Imamate was transferred to his son Muhammad. A third group
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1 The material of this section is based on al-Milal wal-Nihal and al-K?mil of Ibn Athir.
2 The material of this section is taken from the Kamil, Rawdat al-Safa', Habib al-Siyar, 'Abu 'l-Fida', al-Milal wa 'l-Nihal and some of its details from Tarikh Aga Kh?niyah of Matba'i, Najaf, 1351.
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also held that although he died during the lifetime of his father, he was the Imam and that the Imamate passed after him to Muhammad ibn Isma'il and his descendants. The first two groups soon became extinct, while the third branch continues to exist to this day and has undergone a certain amount of division.
The Isma'ilis have a philosophy in many ways similar to that of the Sabaeans (star worshippers)
1 combined with elements of Hindu gnosis. In the sciences and decrees of Islam, they believe that each exterior reality (zahir) has an inner aspect (batin) and each element of revelation (tanzil) a hermeneutic and esoteric exegesis (ta'wil).
2
The Isma'ilis believe that the earth can never exist without a Proof (hujjah) of God. The Proof is of two kinds: "speaker" (natiq) and "silent one" (s?mit). The speaker is a prophet and the silent one is an Imam or Guardian (wall) who is the inheritor, or executor of the testament (wasi) of a prophet. In any case, the Proof of God is the perfect theophany of the Divinity.
The principle of the Proof of God revolves constantly around the number seven. A prophet (nabs), who is sent by God, has the function of prophecy (nubuwwah), of bringing a Divine Law
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1 Editor's note: Here, Sabaean refers to the people of Harran who had a religion in which stars played a major role. Moreover, they were the depository of Hermetic and Neopythagorean philosophy and played an important role in the transmission to Islam of the more esoteric schools of Hellenistic philosophy as well as astronomy and athematic. They became extinct during the first few centuries of Islamic history and must not be confused with the Sabaeans or Mandeans of Southern Iraq and Persia who still survive.
2 Editor's note: The term, (Ta'wil), which plays a cardinal role in Shi'ism as well Sufism, means literally to return to the origin of a thing. It means to penetrate the external aspect of any reality, whether it be sacred scripture or phenomena of nature, to its inner essence, to go from the phenomenon to the noumenon.
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or Shari' ah. A prophet, who is the perfect manifestation of God, has the esoteric power of initiating men into the Divine Mysteries (wilayah).
1 After him, there are seven executors of his testament (wasi) who possess the power of executing his testament (wasiyyah) and the power of esoteric initiation into the Divine Mysteries (wil?yah). The seventh in the succession possesses those two powers and also the additional power of prophecy (nubuwwah). The cycle of seven executors (wads) is then repeated with the seventh a prophet.
The Isma'ilis say that Adam was sent as a prophet with the power of prophecy and of esoteric guidance and he had seven executors of whom the seventh was Noah, who had the three functions of nubuwwah, wasiyyah and wil?yah. Abraham was the seventh executor (wasi) of Noah, Moses the seventh executor of Abraham, Jesus the seventh executor of Moses, Muhammad the seventh executor of Jesus and Muhammad ibn Isma'il the seventh executor of Muhammad.
They consider the wads of the Prophet to be: 'Ali, Husayn ibn 'Ali (they do not consider Imam Hasan among the Imams), 'Ali ibn Husayn al-Sajjad, Muhammad Ja'far al-Sadiq, Ismail ibn Ja'far and Muhammad ibn Isma'il. After this series, there are seven descendants of Muhammad ibn Isma'il whose names are hidden and secret. After them, there are the first seven rulers of the Fatimid caliphate of Egypt the first of whom, Ubaydullah al-Mandi, was the founder of the Fatimid dynasty. The Isma'ilis also believe that in addition to the Proof
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1 Editor's note: The term "wall" in Islam means saint and wilayah as usually narrowed, particularly in Sufism, means sanctity. But in the context of Shi'ism, wilayah (usually pronounced wilayah) means the esoteric power of the Imam whereby he is able to initiate men into the Divine Mysteries and provide for them the key to attaining sanctity. The use of the two terms, therefore, is related, since on the one hand it pertains to the saintly life and on the other to the particular esoteric power of the Imam which leads man to the saintly life. In the case of the Imam, it also has other cosmic and social connotations usually not identified with wilayah in the general sense of sanctity.
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of God, there are always present on earth twelve "chiefs" (naqib) who are the companions and elite followers of the Proof. Some of the branches of the Batinis, however, like the Druzes, believe six of the "chiefs" to be from the Imams and six from others.
The Batinis
In the year 278/891, a few years before the appearance of Ubaydullah al-Mandi in North Africa, there appeared in Küfah an unknown person from Khuzestan (in southern Persia) who never revealed his name and identity. He would fast during the day and worship at night and made a living from his own labor. In addition, he invited people to join the Ismaili cause and was able to assemble a large number of people about him. From among them he chose twelve "chiefs" (naqib) and then he set out for Damascus. Having left Kufah, he was never heard of again.
This unknown man was replaced by Ahmad, known as the Qaramite, who began to propagate Batini teachings in Iraq. As the historians have recorded, he instituted two daily prayers in place of the five of Islam, removed the necessity of ablution after sexual intercourse and made the drinking of wine permissible. Contemporary with these events, other Batini leaders rose to invite people to join their cause and assembled a group of followers.
The Batinis has no respect for the lives and possessions of those who were outside their group. For this reason, they began uprisings in the cities of Iraq, Bahrain, the Yemen and Syria, spilling the blood of people and looting their wealth. Many times, they stopped the caravans of those who were making the pilgrimage to Mecca, killing tens of thousands of pilgrims and plundering their provisions and camels.
Abu Tahir al-Qarmati, one of the Qaramite leaders who in 311/923 had conquered Basra and did not neglect to kill and plunder, set out with a large number of Batinis for Mecca in
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317/929. After overcoming the brief existence of government troops, he entered the city and massacred the population as well as the newly arrived pilgrims. Even within the Masjid al-haram (the mosque containing the Ka'bah) and within the Holy Ka 'bah itself, there flowed streams of blood. He divided the covering of the Ka bah between his disciples. He tore away the door of the Ka 'bah and took the Black Stone from its place back to the Yemen. For twenty-two years, the Black Stone was in Qaramite hands. As a result of these actions, the majority of Muslims turned completely away from the Batinis and considered them outside the pale of Islam. Even 'Ubaydullah al-Mandi, the Fatimid ruler, who had risen in those days in North Africa and considered himself the promised Mandi, abhorred them.
According to the view of historians, the distinguishing characteristic of the Batini school is that it interprets the external aspects of Islam in an esoteric manner and considers the externals of the Shari' ah to be only for simple-minded people of little intelligence who are deprived of spiritual perfection. Yet, occasionally, the Batini Imams did order certain regulations and laws to be practised and followed.
The Nizaris, Musta'lis, Druzes and Muqanna'ah
The Nizaris. Ubaydullah al-Mahdi, who rose in North Africa in 292/904 and as an Ismaili declared his Imamate and established Fatimid rule, is the founder of the dynasty whose descendants made Cairo the center of their caliphate. For seven generations, this sultanate and Isma'ili Imamate continued without any divisions. At the death of the seventh Imam, al-Mustansir bi'llah Mu idd ibn 'Ali, his sons, Nizar and al-Musta'li, began to dispute over the caliphate and Imamate. After long disputes and bloody battles, al-Musta'li was victorious. He captured his brother Nizar and placed him in prison, where he died.
Following this dispute, those who accepted the Fatimids divided into two groups: the Nizaris and the Musta'lis. The
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Nizaris are the followers of Hasan al-Sabbah who was one of the close associates of al-Mustansir. After Nizar's death, because of his support of Nizar Hasan al-Sabbah was expelled from Egypt by al-Musta '11. He came to Persia and after a short while appeared in the Fort of Alamut near Qazwin, He conquered Alamut and several surrounding forts. Then he established his role and also began to invite people to the Ismaili cause.
After the death of Hasan in 518/1124, Buzurg Umid Rudbari and after him his son, Kiya Muhammad, continued to rule following the methods and ways of Hasan al-Sabbah. After Kiya Muhammad, his son Hasan 'Ala' Dhikrihi'l-Islam the fourth ruler of Alamut, changed the ways of Hasan al-Sabbah, who had been Nizari, and became Batini. Henceforth, the Isma'ili forts continued as Batini. Four other rulers, Muhammad ibn 'Ala' Dhikrihi 'l-Islam, Jalal al-Din Hasan, 'Ala' al-Din, and Rukn al-Din Khurshah, became Sultan and Imam one after another until Hulagu, the Mongol conqueror, invaded Persia. He captured the Ismaili forts and put all the Isma'ilis to death, leveling their forts to the ground.
Centuries later, in 1255/1839, the Aqa Khan of Mahalat in Persia, who belonged to the Nizaris, rebelled against Muhammad Shah Qajar in Kerman, but he was defeated and fled to Bombay. There, he propagated his Batini-Nizari cause which continues to this day. The Nizaris are today called the Aqa Khanids.
The Musta'lis. The Musta lis were the followers of al-Musta Their Imamate continued during Fatimid rule in Egypt until it was brought to an end in the year 567/1171. Shortly thereafter, the Bohra sect, following the same school, appeared in India and survives to this day.
The Druzes. The Druzes, who live in the Druze mountains in Syria (and also in Lebanon), were originally followers of the Fatimid caliphs. But as a result of the missionary activity of Nashtakin, the Druzes joined the Batini sect. The Druzes stop with the sixth Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi'llah, whom others
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believe to have been killed, and claim that he is in occultation. He has ascended to heaven and will appear once again to the world.
The Muqanna'ah. The Muqanna'ah were at first disciples of 'Ata' al-Marwi known as Muqanna', who according to historical sources was a follower of Abu-Muslim of Khurasan. After the death of Abu-Muslim, Muqanna claimed that Abu Muslim's soul had become incarnated in him. Soon, he claimed to be a prophet and later a divinity. Finally, in the year 162/777, he was surrounded in the fort of Kabash in Transoxiana. When he became certain that he would be captured and killed, he threw himself into a fire along with some of his disciples and burned to death. His followers soon adopted Isma'ilism and the ways of the Batinis.
