Destiny and Providence
The law of causality reigns throughout the world of existence without any breach or exception.
1 According to this law, each phenomenon in this world depends for its coming into being upon causes and conditions, which make its actualization possible. If all of these causes, which we called the complete cause (the sufficient and necessary cause), are actualized, the coming into being of that phenomenon, or the assumed effect, becomes determined and necessary. And assuming the lack of all or some of these causes, the actualization of the phenomenon is impossible. Investigation and analysis of this thesis will clarify this point for us.
(1) If we compare a phenomenon (or effect) with the whole, complete (or sufficient) cause, and also with the parts of the complete cause, its relation to the complete cause is based on necessity and on a completely determined relationship. At the same time, its relation to each of the parts of the complete cause (which are called incomplete or partial causes) is one of possibility and lack of complete determinism. These causes provide the effect only with the possibility of existence, not with its necessity.
The world of existence, in its totality, therefore, is governed throughout by necessity because each of its parts has a necessary connection with its complete cause by the very fact of coming into being. Its structure is composed of a series of necessary and certain events. Yet, the character of possibility is preserved in its parts if we consider each part separately and in itself in the phenomena which are related and connected to partial causes which are other than their complete cause.
____________
1 Editor's note: Needless to say, this assertion holds true whether there is strict causality on the microphysical level or not, because on the rophysical plane strict casuality is observed and is of the greatest importance for the understanding of the nature of this plane of existences. Causality also dominates over higher levels of existence than the corporeal.
( 151 )
The Holy Qur'an in its teachings has called this reign of necessity Divine Destiny (qada'), for this necessity issues from that Source that gives existence to the world and is therefore a command (hukm) and "Divine Decree" that is certain and is impossible to breach or disobey. It is based on justice and accepts no exception or discrimination. God the Almighty says, "His verity is all creation and commandment" (Qur'an, VII, 54), and "When He decreeth (qada') a thing, He saith unto it only: Be! And it is" (Qur'an, II, 117), and also "(When) Allah doometh there is none that can postpone His doom [hukm] (Qur'an, XIII, 41).
(2) Each part of the cause provides the appropriate measure and "model" for the effect, and the coming into being of the effect is in accordance with the totality of the measures determined for it by the complete cause. For example, the causes that make respiration possible for man do not cause respiration in the absolute and unconditioned sense; rather they send a determined amount of the air around the mouth and nose through the respiratory channel to the area of the lungs in a determined time and with a determined shape. Likewise, the causes of man's vision (including man himself) do not bring into being vision as such without limits or conditions, but rather a vision which, through the means and organs provided, is limited and measured for men in every respect. This truth is to be found without exception in all the phenomena of the world and all the events that occur in it.
The Holy Qur'an has called this aspect of the truth "Providence" (qadar) and has related it to God the Almighty who is the origin of creation, as has been said, "And there is not a thing but with Us are the stores thereof. And we send it at not down save in appointed measure [qadar]." (Qur'an, XV, 21)
1
____________
1 The sixth Imam has said, "When God, the Exalted, wills a thing, He makes it predestined, and when He has made it predestined, He decrees it, and when He decrees it, He executes it and puts it into effect." Bihar al-Anwar, vol. III, p 34.
( 152 )
In the same way that according to Divine Destiny the existence of each phenomenon and event which occurs in the cosmic order is necessary and cannot be avoided, so also according to Providence each phenomena and event that occurs will never trespass or disobey in the least degree the measure which God has provided for it.
Man and Free Will
The action which man performs is one of the phenomena of the world of creation and its appearance depends, completely, like other phenomena in the world, upon its cause. And since man is a part of the world of creation and has an ontological relation with other parts of the cosmos, we cannot accept the premise that other parts should not have an effect upon his actions. For example, when a man takes a bite of bread, he needs not only the instruments of his hands, feet, mouth as well as knowledge, power and will, but also the existence of the bread in the external world, its availability, the lack of obstacles and other temporal and spatial conditions. If any of these causes were not actualized, the action would not be possible. Conversely, with the actualization of all of them (the complete cause) the occurrence of the action becomes completely necessary. The necessity of the action in relation to all of the parts of the complete cause is not contradictory to the possibility of the relation of the action with respect to man, who is one of the parts of the complete cause. Man has the possibility or free will (ikhtiyar) to perform the act. The necessity existing in the relation between the action and all of the parts of the cause does not mean that the relation of the action to some of the parts of the cause, of which man is one, should also be that of necessity and determinism.
Man's simple and untainted comprehension also confirms this point of view, for we see that people through their God-given nature and intelligence distinguish between such things as eating, drinking, coming and going on the one hand, and on the other, such things as health and illness, age and youth or the height of the body. The first group, which is directly related to
( 153 )
man's will, is considered to be performed according to the free choice of the individual so that people command and prohibit them and blame or condemn them. But concerning the second group, man has no duty and is not under any Divine command because he cannot exercise a free choice over them.
At the beginning of Islam among the Sunnis there were two schools that were concerned with the theological aspects of human action. One group, holding the view that human action is the result of the unbreakable will of God, considered man to be determined in his actions and held human free will to be devoid of any value and sense. The other group believed man to be independent in his actions, which did not depend upon the Divine will and were outside of the command of Providence (qadar).
But according to the instruction of the Household of the Prophet, which is also in conformity with the literal instructions of the Qur'an, man is free (mukhtar) in his actions but not independent (mustaqill). Rather, God the Almighty through free will has willed the act. According to our previous analysis, God, the Exalted, has willed and made necessary the act through all of the parts of the complete cause, of which one is the will and free choice of man. As a result of this kind of Divine will, the action is necessary but in it man has also free will, that is, the action is necessary with respect to all the parts of its cause, and possible and free in choice with respect to one of those parts which is man.
1 The sixth Imam—upon him be peace—has said, "It is neither determination nor free will, but something between the two."
____________
1 Editor's note: The question of free will and determinism is one of the most difficult to solve theologically because it comprises a reality that transcends the dichotomy of discursive reason. With respect to Absolute Reality, there is no free will because there is no partial reality independent of the Absolute. But of the extent that man is real in the relative sense, he possesses free will. From the point of view of causality, there is determination in relation to the total cause but freedom with respect to man's action which is part If that total cause.
( 154 )
The fifth and sixth Imams have said that "God loves His creation so much that He will not force it to commit sin and then punish it. And God is so powerful that whatever He commands comes to be." Also the sixth Imam has said, "God is so generous that He does not make it a duty for men to do what is not in their power. He is so powerful that nothing comes into being in His kingdom which He does not will."
1 (This is an allusion to the two schools of predestination and free will.)
____________
1 Bihar al-Anwar vol. III, pp. 5, 6, 15.
( 155 )
CHAPTER FIVE
ON THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE PROPHET
Toward the Goal: General Guidance
A grain of wheat that is placed within the bosom of the earth under appropriate conditions begins to grow and enters upon a path of development in which at every moment it takes on a new form and state. Following a particular order and sequence, it treads this path until it becomes a grown plant with spikes of wheat; if once again one of the seeds were to fall upon the ground, it would begin the previous cycle all over again until it reached the final goal. Likewise, if the seed is that of a fruit placed within the bosom of the soil, it begins its transformation, breaking its shell, from which a green stem shoots out. It follows an orderly and distinct path of transformation until finally it becomes a fully grown tree, green and full of fruit. Or if it is the sperm of an animal, it begins to develop within the egg or in the womb of the mother, following the line of development peculiar to that animal until it becomes a perfected individual of that animal species.
This distinct path and orderly development is to be observed in each species of creatures in this world and is determined by the inner nature of that species. The green wheat plant which has sprang up from the grain will never bear oats or become a sheep, a goat or an elephant, and an animal that has become pregnant from its male will never bear spikes of wheat or a plane tree. Even if an imperfection were to occur in the organs or the natural functions of the newly born, or if a lamb were to be born without an eye, or a wheat plant develop without spikes of wheat, we would have no doubt that such an occurrence was
( 156 )
due to some pest or plague or to Unnatural causes. Continuous order and regularity in the development and generation of things, and the belonging of each species of creatures in its generation and development to a particular order and rule, is an undeniable fact.
From this evident thesis two conclusions can be drawn. (1) Between the various stages that each species of creatures traverses from the beginning to the end of its existence there is continuity and interconnection, as if that species in each stage of its development were pushed from behind and attracted by what is to come. (2) Due to the above-mentioned continuity and interconnection, the last rage in the development of each species is from the beginning of its generation the goal and point of "existential attention" of that species. For example, the "attention" of the walnut that sends out a green shoot from below the earth is centered from that very moment on a fully grown walnut tree. And a sperm in the egg or the womb is from the moment of its generation moving toward the state of the perfected animal.
The Holy Qur'an, which teaches that the creation and the preservation of things belong absolutely to God, considers this movement and attraction, which each species in creation possession in treading its path of development, to be derived from Divine guidance. As He says, "Our Lord is He Who gave unto everything its nature, then guided it aright" (Qur'an, XX, 50).
1 And also, "Who createth, then disposeth; who measureth then guideth" (Qur'an, LXXXVII, 2-3). And He refers to the result of these sayings in these words: "And each one hath a goal toward which he turneth" (Qur'an, II, 148).
2 And also "And We created not the heavens and the earth, and all that is
____________
1 By this is meant guidance toward the goal of life and of creation.
2 For each person, there exists a goal which he pursues.
( 157 )
between them in play. We created them not save with truth, but most of them know not." (Qur'an, XLIV, 38 -39).
1
Special Guidance
Obviously, the human species is not an exception to this general rule. The same guidance which rules over all species of creatures governs man as well. In the same way that each species through its particular nature follows its path of perfection and is guided to it, so must man with the help of this guidance be guided toward that which is his real perfection.
Although man shares many elements with other species of animals and with plants, the one special characteristic which distinguishes him is intellect.
2 It is with the help of his intellect and reason that man is able to think and to make use of every means possible for his own benefit, to fly into the endless spaces of the sky or swim in the depth of the sea, or to bring under his service and command all kinds of created things, whether they be minerals, plants or animals on the surface of the earth, and to benefit even from members of his own species to the greatest extent possible.
Owing to his primordial nature, man sees his happiness and perfection in gaining complete freedom. Yet, he must of necessity sacrifice some of his freedom because he is created as a social being and has endless demands which by himself he can never satisfy, and also because he is in cooperation and social intercourse with other members of his species who themselves have the same instinct of self-centeredness and love of freedom
____________
1 Creation with truth means that there is a goal and purpose to creation.
2 Editor's note: The author uses the Persian word khirad' which like 'aql means both intellect and reason depending on how it is used. But it certainly does not mean just reason or the modern understanding of intellect as being synonymous with reason. The traditional meaning of intellect as a faculty of immediate perception transcending reason, yet not irrational, is inherent in it.
( 158 )
that he has. For the sake of the benefit he gains from others, he must in turn be of benefit to them. Equivalent to what he reaps from the toil of others he must give of his own work. Or, in summary, he must of necessity accept a society based upon mutual cooperation.
This point is clear in the case of newborn babies and children. At the beginning, when desiring anything, they make use of no other means but force and crying and refuse to accept any constraint or discipline. But gradually, as a result of mental development, they realize that one cannot succeed in the problems of life only through rebellion and force; therefore, slowly they approach the condition of social beings. Finally they reach the age when they become social individuals with developed mental powers and are ready to obey the social regulations of their environment.
When man comes to accept the necessity for mutual cooperation among members of society be also recognizes the necessity for laws which rule over society, clarifying the duty of each individual and specifying the punishment for each offender. He accepts laws through whose application each individual in society can realize real happiness and find felicity in proportion to the social value of his efforts. These laws are the same universal and applicable laws which man, from the first day of this existence until today, has been continuously seeking and to which he has always been attracted in the foremost among all his desires. If the attainment of such a thing were not possible and were not written upon the tablet of human destiny, it would not have been the perennial yearning of man.
1
____________
1 Even the simplest and most thoughtless of men wish by their natute as human beings that human society should be such that all can live in comfort, peace and tranquillity. From the philosophical point of view, want, love, attraction, appetite and the like are relative qualities connecting two sides, such as that which wishes with that which is wished, or the lover and the beloved. It is clear that if there were to be no one to love, love would have no meaning. Ultimately, all this returns to the understanding of
( 159 )
God, the Exalted, has referred to this reality of human society, saying, "We have apportioned among them their livelihood in the life of the world, and raised some of them above others in rank that some of them may take labor from others" (Qur'an, LXIII, 32).
1 Concerning man's selfishness and desire to monopolize things to himself, He says, "Lo! Man was created anxious, fretful when evil befalleth him, and when good befalleth him, grudging" (Qur'an, LXX, 19-21).
2
Reason and Law
If we delve into the matter carefully, we will discover that man seeks continuously those laws which can bring him happiness in the world; that people as individuals and in groups recognize, in accordance with their God-given nature, the necessity for laws which provide felicity for them without discrimination or exception, laws which establish a general norm of perfection among mankind. Obviously, up to now, during the different periods of human history, there have not come into being any such laws which were devised by human reason. If the laws of existence had placed the burden of creating such human laws upon the shoulders of human reason, then during the long period of history such laws would have been established. In that case, each individual who possesses the power of reasoning would comprehend this human law in detail in the same way that everyone realizes the necessity for such laws in society.
____________
the meaning of imperfection. If there were to be no perfection, imperfection would have no meaning.
1 This means that each individual is responsible for a part of life and receives an appointed portion of livelihood. Men are of different ranks in the sense that the manager dominates over the worker, the director over his subordinates, the owner over the tenant or the buyer over the seller.
2 The anxiety mentioned here is related to man's being covetous.
( 160 )
In other words, if it had been in the very nature of things that it be the duty of human reason to create a perfect common law which must provide happiness for human society, and that man should be guided to that perfect law through the process of creation and the generation of the world itself, then such laws would have been apprehended by each human being through his reason in the same way that man knows what is of benefit or detriment to him throughout the determined course of daily life. There is, however, as yet no sign of the presence of such laws. Laws which have come about by themselves, or have been devised by a single ruler, or individuals, or nations, and have become prevalent in different societies are considered by some as certain, and by others as doubtful. Some are aware of these laws and others are ignorant of them. Never has it come to pass that all people, who in their basic structure are the same in that they are endowed by God with reason, should have a common awareness of the details of the laws which can bring about happiness in the world of man.
That Mysterious Wisdom and Consciousness
Called Revelation
Thus, in the light of the discussion above, it becomes clear that the laws which can guarantee the happiness of human society cannot be perceived by reason. Since according to the thesis of general guidance running throughout creation the existence of an awareness of these laws in the human species is necessary, there must be another power of apprehension within the human species which enables man to understand the real duties of life and which places this knowledge within the reach of everyone. This consciousness and power of perception, which is other than reason and sense, is called the prophetic consciousness, or the consciousness of revelation.
Of course the presence of such a power in mankind does not mean that it should necessarily appear in all individuals, in the same way that although the power of procreation has been placed in all human beings, the awareness of the enjoyment of marriage and being prepared for this enjoyment is possible only
( 161 )
for those who have reached the age of puberty. In the same way that the consciousness of revelation is a mysterious and unknown form of consciousness for those who do not possess it, the apprehension of the joy of sexual union is a mysterious and unknown feeling for those who have not reached the age of puberty.
God, the Exalted, makes reference in His Word to the revelation of His Divine Law (Shari' ah) and the inability of human reason to comprehend this matter in the verses: "Lo! We inspire thee as We inspired Noah and the prophets after him, as We inspired Abraham, and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and Jesus and Job and Jonah and Aaron and Solomon, and We imparted unto David the Psalms; and messengers We have mentioned unto thee before and messengers We have not mentioned unto thee and Allah spoke directly unto Moses; Messengers of good cheer and of warning, in order that mankind might have no argument against Allah after the messengers (Qur'an, IV, 163-165).
1
The Prophets-Inerrancy of Prophecy
The appearance of prophets affirms the conception of revelation outlined above. The prophets of God were men who propagated the call of revelation and prophecy and brought definitive proofs for their call. They propagated among people the elements of the religion of God (which is the same divine law that guarantees happiness) and made it available to all men.
Since in all periods of history, the number of people endowed with the power of prophecy and revelation has been limited to a few individuals, God—the Most Exalted—has completed and perfected the guidance of the rest of mankind by placing the
____________
1 This verse clarifies the insufficiency of human reason without prophecy and revelation. If reason were sufficient to provide argument for the existence of God, then would be no need of prophets.
( 162 )
mission of the propagation of religion upon the shoulders of His prophets. That is why a prophet of God must possess the quality of inerrancy ( 'ismah). In receiving the revelation from God, in guarding it and in making possible its reaching the people, he must be free from error. He must not commit sin (ma The reception of revelation, its preservation and its propagation are three principles of ontological guidance; and error in existence itself is meaningless. Furthermore, sin and opposition to the claims of the religious call and its propagation are impossible in a prophet for they would be a call against the original religious mission; they would destroy the confidence of the people, their reliance upon the truth and the validity of the call. As a result, they would destroy the purpose of the religious call itself.
God, the Exalted, refers in His word to the inerrancy of the prophets, saying, "And We chose them and guided them unto a straight path" (Qur'an, VI, 88).
1 And also, "(He is) the Knower of the Unseen, and He revealeth unto none His secret, save unto every messenger whom He hath chosen, and then He maketh a guard to go before him and guard behind him, that He may know that they have indeed conveyed the messages of their Lord" (Qur'an, LXXII, 26-28).
2
____________
1 To have guided the prophest unto a straight path means that they are directed wholly toward God and obey only Him.
2 A guard before and a guard behnd refers to confitions before and after the revelation or the event of the life of the prophet himself.
