In The Name Of Allah; Most Merciful And Compassionate
INTRODUCTION
This book, which we have called Shi ite Islam,
1 seeks to clarify the true identity of Shi' ism which is one of the two major branches of Islam, the other being Sunnism. It deals in particular with the way Shi'ism originated and later developed, with the type of religious thought present in Shi'ism, and with Islamic sciences and culture as seen from the Shi'ite point of view.
The Meaning of Religion (din), 2 Islam, and Shi'ism
Religion: There is no doubt that each member of the human race is naturally drawn to his fellow-men and that in his life in society, he acts in ways which are interrelated and interconnected. His eating, drinking, sleeping, keeping awake,
____________
1 Editor's note: The original title given by 'Allamah Tabataba'i to the book is Shi'ah dar Islam (Shi'ism in Islam). What the author intends by the title is Islam as seen and interpreted by Shi'ism. Therefore we have chosen to call it Shi'ite Islam.
2 Editor's note: Although we have rendered the word Din by religion, its meaning is more universal than that usually given to religion today. Din is the set of transcendent principles and their applications in every domain of life which concern man in his journey on earth and his life beyond this World. It could properly be translated as tradition as understood by the traditional authors in the West such as F. Schuon, R. Guenon and A. K. Coomaraswamy.
( 44 )
talking, listening, sitting, walking, his social intercourse and meetings, at the same time that they are formally and externally distinct, are invariably connected with each other. One cannot perform just any act in any place or after any other act. There is an order which must be observed.
There is, therefore, an order which governs the actions man performs in the journey of this life, an order against which his actions cannot rebel. In reality, these acts all originate from a distinct source. That source is man's desire to possess a felicitous life, a life in which he can reach to the greatest extent possible the objects of his desire, and be gratified. Or, one could say that man wishes to provide in a more complete way for his needs in order to continue his existence.
This is why man continually conforms his actions to rules and laws either devised by himself or accepted from others, and why he selects a particular way of life for himself among all the other existing possibilities. He works in order to provide for his means of livelihood and expects his activities to be guided by laws and regulations that must be followed. In order to satisfy his sense of taste and overcome hunger and thirst, he eats and drinks, for he considers eating and drinking necessary for the continuation of his own happy existence. This role could be multiplied by many other instances.
The rules and laws that govern human existence depend for their acceptance on the basic beliefs that man has concerning the nature of universal existence, of which he himself is a part, and also upon his judgment and evaluation of that existence. That the principles governing man's actions depend on his conception of being as a whole becomes clear if one meditates a moment on the different conceptions that people hold as to the nature of the world and of man.
Those who consider the Universe to be confined only to this material, sensible world, and man himself to be completely material and therefore subject to annihilation when the breath of life leaves him at the moment of death follow a way of life
( 45 )
designed to provide for their material desires and transient mundane pleasures. They strive solely on this path, seeking to bring under their control the natural conditions and factors of life.
Similarly, there are those who, like the common people among idol-worshippers, consider the world of nature to be created by a god above nature who has created the world specially for man and provided it with multiple bounties so that man may benefit from his goodness. Such men organize their lives so as to attract the pleasure of the god and not invite his anger. They believe that if they please the god, he will multiply his bounty and make it lasting and if they anger him he will take his bounty away from them.
On the other hand, such men as Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians and Muslims follow the "high path" in this life for they believe in God and in man's eternal life, and consider man to be responsible for his good and evil acts. As a result, they accept as proven the existence of a day of judgment (qiyamat) and follow a path that leads to felicity in both this world and the next.
The totality of these fundamental beliefs concerning the nature of man and the Universe, and regulations in conformity with them which are applied to human life, is called religion (din). If there are divergences in these fundamental beliefs and regulations, they are called schools such as the Sunni and Shi'ite schools in Islam and the Nestorian in Christianity. We can therefore say that man, even if he does not believe in the Deity, can never be without religion if we recognize religion as a program for life based on firm belief. Religion can never be separated from life and is not simply a matter of ceremonial acts.
The Holy Qur'an asserts that man has no choice but to follow religion, which is a path that God has placed before man so that by treading it man can reach Him. However, those who have
( 46 )
accepted the religion of the truth (Islam)
1 march in all sincerity upon the path of God, while those who have not accepted the religion of the truth have been diverted from the divine path and have followed the wrong road.
2
Islam etymologically means surrender and obedience. The Holy Qur'an calls the religion which invites men toward this end Islam since its general purpose is the surrender of man to the laws governing the Universe and men, with the result that through this surrender he worships only the One God and obeys only His commands.
3 As the Holy Qur'an informs us, the first person who called this religion "Islam" and its followers "Muslims" was the Prophet Abraham—upon whom be peace.
4
____________
1 Editor's note: Speaking as a Muslim religious authority, the author has mentioned Islam in parentheses as "the religion of the truth" without, however, in any way negating the universality of revelation asserted in the Qur'an. For a Muslim quite naturally the "religion of the truth" par excellence is Islam without this belief detracting from the verity of other religions to same of which the author himself has referred in this and other work. Sea S. H. Nasr "Islam and the Encounter of Religions" The Islamic Quarterly, vol. X, nos. 3 and 4. July and December 1966 pp. 47-68.
2 "The curse of Allah is on evildoer, who debar (men) from the path of Allah and would have it crooked, ..." (Qur'an, VII, 44-45) (This and all subsequent citations of the Qur'an are from The Meaning of the Glorious Koran, An Explanatory Translation by Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall, New York, New American Library, 1953).
3 "who is better in religion than he who surrendereth his purpose to Allah while doing goad (to men) and followeth the tradition of Abraham, the upright?" (Qur'an, IV, 125). "Say: 0 People of the Scripture! Come to an agreement between us and you: that wa shall worship none but Allah, and that we shall ascribe no partner unto Him and that none of us shall fake others for lords beside Allah. And if they turn away, then say: Bear witness that we are they who have surrendered (unto Him) [muslimun] (Qur'an, III, 64) "0 ye who believe! Come all of you into submission unto Him)..." (Qur'an, 11, 208).
4 "Our Lord! And make us submissive unto Thee and of our seed a nation submissive unto Thee" (Qur'an, II, 128) "The faith of your father Abraham (is yours). He hath named you Muslims." (Qur'an, XXII 78).
( 47 )
Shi'ah which means literally partisan or follower, refers to those who consider the succession to the Prophet—upon whom be blessings and peace—to be the special right of the family of the Prophet and who in the field of the Islamic sciences and culture follow the school of the Household of the Prophet.
1
____________
1 A group of Zaydis who accept two caliphs before 'Ali and in jurisprudence follow Abu-Hanifah are also called Shi'ite because in contrast to the Umayyads and 'Abbasids, they consider the later caliphate as belonging solely to 'Ali and his descendants.
( 49 )
PART I
THE HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND OF SHI'ISM
CHAPTER ONE
THE ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF SHI'ISM
Shi'ism began with a reference made for the first time to the partisans of 'Ali (shi'at the first leader of the Household of the Prophet, during the lifetime of the Prophet himself.
1 The course of the first manifestation and the later growth of Islam during the twenty-three years of prophecy brought about many conditions which necessitated the appearance of a group such as the Shi'ites among the companions of the Prophet.
The Holy Prophet during the first days of his prophecy, when according to the text of the Qur'an he was commanded to invite his closer relatives to come to his religion,
2 told them clearly
____________
1 The first designation to have appeared during the lifetime of the Holy Prophet of God was shi'ah and Salman, Abu-Dharr, Miqdad and 'Ammar were known by this mane. See Hadir al-'Alam al-Islami, Cairo, 1352, vol. I, pp. 188.
2 Qur'an, XXVI, 214.
( 50 )
that whoever would be the first to accept his invitation would become his successor and inheritor. 'Ali was the first to step forth and embrace Islam. The Prophet accepted 'Ali's submission to the faith and thus fulfilled his promise.
1
From the Shi'ite point of view, it appears as unlikely that the leader of a movement, during the first days of his activity, should introduce to strangers one of his associates as his successor and deputy but not introduce him to his completely loyal and devout aides and friends. Nor does it appear likely that such a leader should accept someone as his deputy and successor and introduce him to others as such, but then throughout his life and religious call deprive his deputy of his duties as deputy, disregard the respect due to his position as successor and refuse to make any distinctions between him and others.
The Prophet, according to many unquestioned and completely authenticated hadiths, both Sunni and Shi ite, clearly asserted that 'Ali was preserved from error and sin in his actions and sayings. Whatever he said and did was in perfect conformity with the teachings of religion
2 and he was the most
____________
1 According to this hadith, 'Ali said, "I who was the youngest of all have submitted that I am your vizier. The Prophet put his hand around my neck and said, 'This person is my brother, inheritor and vicegerent. You must obey him.' People laughed and told Abu-Talib, 'He has ordered you to obey your son.'" Tabari, al-T?rikh, Cairo, 1357, vol. II, pp. 63; AbulFida', al -Tarikh, Cairo, 1325, vol. I pp. 116; Ibn al-Athir, al-Bidayah wa l- Nihayah, Cairo, 1358, vol. III, pp. 39; Bahrani, Ghayat al-Maram, Tehran, 1272, pp. 320, [Editor's note: The reader will notice that this hadith and certain others which are quoted more than once appear each time in a slightly different form. This is because the author has made use of different transmitted versions in each place.]
2 Umm Salamah has recounted that the Prophet said: ''Alt is always with the Truth (haqq) and the Qur'an, and the Truth and the Qur'an are always with him and until the Day of Judgment, they will not be separated from each other." This hadith has been transmitted through fifteen channels in Sunni sources and eleven in Shi'ite sources. Umm Salamah, Ibn 'Abbas,
( 51 )
knowledgeable of men in matters pertaining to the Islamic sciences and injunctions.
1
During the period of prophecy, 'All performed valuable services and made remarkable sacrifices. When the infidels of Mecca decided to kill the Prophet and surrounded his house, the Holy Prophet decided to emigrate to Medina. He said to 'All, "Will you sleep in my bed at night so that they will think that I am asleep and I will be secure from being pursued by them?"
2 'Ali accepted this dangerous assignment with open arms. This has been recounted in different histories and collections of hadith. 'Ali also served by fighting in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khaybar, Khandaq and Hunayn in which the victories achieved with his aid were such that if 'Ali had not been present the enemy would must likely have uprooted Islam and the Muslims, as is recounted in the usual reference books of history (Tarikh), biography of the Prophet (Sirah) and collections of hadith.
For Shi ites, the central evidence of 'All's legitimacy as successor to the Prophet is the event of Ghadir Khumm
3 when
____________
Abu-Bakr, 'A'ishah, 'Ali, Abu-Sa'id al-Khidri, Abu-Layla, Abu-Ayyub alAnsari are among its transmitters. Ghayat al-Maram, pp. 539-540. The Prophet has said "God bless 'Ali for the Truth is always with him." AlBidayah wa 'l-Nih?yah vol. VII, pp. 36.
1 The Prophet said, 'Arbitration has been divided into ten parts. Nine pacts are given to 'Ali and one part is divided among all the people.' al-Bidayah wa 'l-Nihayah, vol. VII, pp. 359. Salman Farsi has transmitted this saying from the Prophet: 'After me, the most learned of men is 'Ali.' Ghayat alMaram, pp. 528. Ibn 'Abbas has said that the Prophet said, "Ali is the most competent among people in judgment.' From the book, Fada'il al-Sahabah, mentioned in Ghayat al-Maram, pp. 528, 'Umar used to say, "May God never afflict me with a difficult task where 'Ali is not present." Al-Bidayah wa 'l-Nihayah, vol. VII, pp. 359.
2 The emigration from Mecca to Medina marks the date of origin of the Islamic calendar, known the hijrah.
3 Editor's note: According to Shiite beliefs, on returning from the last pilgrimage to Mecca on the way to Medina at a site called Ghadir Khumm,
( 52 )
the Prophet chose 'All to the "general guardianship" (wilayah sAmmah) of the people and made 'Ali, like himself, their "guardian" (wali).
1
It is obvious that because of such distinctive services and recognition, because of 'All's special virtues which were acclaimed by all
2 and because of the great love the Prophet showed for him,
3 some of the companions of the Prophet who knew 'Ali well, and who were champions of virtue and truth, came to love him. They assembled around 'All and followed him to such an extent that many others began to consider their love for him excessive and a few perhaps also became jealous of him. Besides all these elements, we see in many sayings of the Prophet reference to the "Shi'ah of 'Ali and the "Shi' ah of the Household of the Prophet."
4
____________
the Prophet chose 'Ali as his successor before the vast crowd that was accompanying him. The Shiites celebrate this event to this day as a major religious feast marking the day when the right of 'Ali to succession was universally acclaimed.
1 The hadith of Ghadir in its different versions is one of the definitely established hadiths among Sunnis and Shi'ah. More than a hundred of the companions have recounted it with different chains of transmission and expressions, and it has been recorded in books of Sunnism and Shi'ism alike. Concerning details, refer to Ghayat al-Maram, pp. 79, Abaqat of Musawi, India, 1317 (Volume on Ghadir) and al-Ghadir of Amini, Najaf, 1372.
2 Tarikh Ya'qubi, Najaf, 1358, vol II, pp. 137 and 140, Tarikh Abi 'l-Fida', vol. I, pp. 156; ,Sahih of Bukhari, Cairo, 1315, vol. IV, pp. 207; Muruj al-Dhahab of Mas'udi Cairo, 1367, vol. II, pp. 437, vol. III, pp. 21 and 61.
3 Sahih of Muslim, vol, XV, pp. 176; Sahih of Bukhari, vol. IV, pp. 207; Muruj al-Dhahab vol. III, pp, 23 and vol. II, pp. 437; Tarikh Abu 'l-Fida', vol. 1, pp. 127 and 181.
4 Jabir says: "We were in the presence of the Prophet when Ali appeared from far away. The Prophet said, 'I swear by Him who holds my life in His hands, this person and his partisans (Shi'ah) will have salvation on the Day of Judgment.'" Ibn 'Abbas says: "When the Verse: `(And) lo! those who believe and do good works are the best of created beings' (Qur'an, XCVII,7) was revealed, the Prophet told 'Ali, 'This verse pertains to you and your partisans who will possess felicity on the Day of Judgment and God will also be satisfied with you.'" These two hadiths and several others are recorded in the book of al-Durr al-Manthur of Suyuti, Cairo, 1313, vol. VI, pp. 379 and Ghayat al-Maram, pp. 326.
( 53 )
The Cause of the Separation of the Shi'ite
Minority from the Sunni Majority
The friends and followers of 'Ali believed that after the death of the Prophet, the caliphate and religious authority (marja'iyat-i ilmi) belonged to 'Ali. This belief came from their consideration of 'Ali's position and station in relation to the Prophet, his relation to the chosen among the companions, as well as his relation to Muslims in general. It was only the events that occurred during the few days of the Prophet's final illness that indicated that there was opposition to their view.
1 Contrary to their expectation, at the very moment when the Prophet died and his body lay still unburied while his household and a few companions were occupied with providing for his burial and
____________
1 While suffering from the illness that led to his death, (Prophet)
Muhammad organized an army under the command of Usamah ibn Zayd and insisted that everyone should participate in this war and go out of Medina. A number of people disobeyed the Prophet including Abu-Bakr and 'Umar and this disturbed the Prophet greatly. (Sharp
Cairo, 1329 vol. 15, pp. 53.) At the moment of his death, the Holy Prophet said, "Prepare ink and paper so that I will have a letter written for you which will be a cause of guidance for you and prevent you from being misled." 'Umar, who prevented this action, said, "His illness has run out of bend and he is delirious!" (Tarikh Tabari, vol. II, pp. 436: Sahih) of Bukhari vol. III and Sahih of Muslim Cairo, 1349 vol. V; al-Bidayah wa 'l-Nihayah, vol. V, pp. 227; Ibn Abi'l-Hadid vol. I, pp. 133.) A somewhat similar situation occurred again during the illness, which lad to the death of the first caliph. In his last testament, the first caliph chose 'Umar and even fainted while making the testament, but 'Umar said nothing and did not consider him to be delirious, although he had fainted while the testament was being written. The Prophet had been inerrant and fully conscious when he asked them to write down a letter of guidance. (Rawdat al-Sofa, Mir Khwand Lucknow, 1332, vol. II, pp. 260.)
( 54 )
funeral service, the friends and followers of 'Ali received news of the activity of another group who had gone to the mosque where the community was gathered faced with this sudden loss of its leader. This group, which was later to form the majority, set forth in great haste to select a caliph for the Muslims with the aim of ensuring the welfare of the community and solving its immediate problems. They did this without consulting the Household of the Prophet, his relatives or many of his friends, who were busy with the funeral, and without providing them with the least information. Thus, 'Ali and his companions were presented with a fait accompli.
1
'All and his friends—such as 'Abbas, Zubayr, Salman, Abu Dharr, Miqdad and 'Ammar—after finishing with the burial of the body of the Prophet became aware of the proceedings by which the caliph had been selected. They protested against the act of choosing the caliph by consultation or election, and also against those who were responsible for carrying it out. They even presented their own proofs and arguments, but the answer they received was that the welfare of the Muslims was at stake and the solution lay in what had been done.
2
____________
1 Ibn Abi 'l Hadid, Sharh Nahj al-Balaghah, vol. I, pp. 58 and pp. 123-135; Tarikh Ya'qubi vol. II, pp. 102; Tarikh Tabari vol. II, pp. 445-460.
2 Tarikh Ya'qubi, vol. 11, pp. 103-106; Tarikh Abi 'l-Fida', vol. I, pp. 156 and 166; Muruj al-Dhahab, vol. II, pp. 307 and 352; Ibn Abil-Hadid, vol. I, pp. 17 and 134. In answer to Ibn 'Abbas's protest, 'Umar said, 'I swear to God, 'Ali was the most deserving of all people to become caliph, but for three reasons we pushed him aside: (1) he was too young, (2) he was attached to the descendants of 'Abd al-Muttalib (3) people did not like to have prophecy and the caliphate assembled in one household." (Ibn Abi'l-Hadid, vol. 15, pp. 134.) 'Umar said to Ibn 'Abbas, "I swear to God that 'Ali deserved the caliphate, but the Quraysh would not have been able to bear his caliphate, for had he become caliph, he would have forced the people to accept the pure truth and follow the Right Path. Under his caliphate, they would not have been able to transgress the boundaries of justice and thus would have sought to engage in war with. him." (Tarikh Ya'qubi, vol. II, pp. 137.)
( 55 )
It was this protest and criticism which separated from the majority the minority that were following 'Ali and made his followers known to society as the "partisans" or "Shi ah" of 'Ali. The caliphate of the time was anxious to guard against this appellation being given to the Shis ite minority and thus to have Muslim society divided into sections comprised of a majority and a minority. The supporters of the caliph considered the caliphate to be a matter of the consensus of the community (ijma') and called those who objected the "opponents of allegiance." They claimed that the Shi ah stood, therefore, opposed to Muslim society. Sometimes the Shi'ah were given other pejorative and degrading names.
1
Shi'ism was condemned from the first moment because of the political situation of the time and thus it could not accomplish anything through mere political protest. 'Ali, in order to safeguard the well-being of Islam and of the Muslims, and also because of lack of sufficient political and military power, did not endeavor to begin an uprising against the existing political order, which would have been of a bloody nature. Yet, those who protested against the established caliphate refused to surrender to the majority in certain questions of faith and continued to hold that the succession to the Prophet and religious authority belonged by right to 'Ali.
2 They believed
____________
1 'Amr ibn Harith said to Said ibn Zayd, "Did anyone oppose paying allegiance to Abu-Bakr?" He answered, "No one was opposed to him except those who had become apostates or were about to become so." Tarikh Tabari, vol. II, pp. 447.
2 In the famous hadith of thaqalayn—the two things of value—the Prophet says, leave two things of value amidst you in trust which if you hold on, you will never go astray: the Qur'an and the members of my household; these will never be separated until the Day of Judgment." This hadith has been transmitted through more than a hundred channels by over thirty-five of the companions of the Holy Prophet. ('Abaqat, volume on hadith thaqalayn, Ghayat al-Maram, pp. 211.) The Prophet said, 'I am the city of knowledge and 'Ali is its gate. Therefore whosoever seeks knowledge should enter through its door.' (al-Bid?yah wa 'l-Nihayah, vol. VII, pp. 359.)
( 56 )
that all spiritual and religious matters should be referred to him and invited people to become his followers.
1
The Two Problems of Succession and
Authority in Religious Sciences
In accordance with the Islamic teachings which form its basis, Shi'ism believed that the most important question facing Islamic society was the elucidation and clarification of Islamic teachings and the tenets of the religious sciences.
2 Only after such clarifications were made could the application of these teachings to the social order be considered. In other words, Shi'ism believed that, before all else, members of society should be able to gain a true vision of the world and of men based on the real nature of things. Only then could they know and perform their duties as human beings—in which lay their real welfare—even if the performance of these religious duties were to be against their desires. After carrying out this first step, a religious government should preserve and execute real Islamic order in society in such a way that man would worship none other than God, would possess personal and social freedom to the extent possible and would benefit from true personal and social justice.
These two ends could be accomplished only by a person who was inerrant and protected by God from having faults. Otherwise, people could become rulers or religious authorities who would not be free from the possibility of distortion of thought or the committing of treachery in the duties placed upon their shoulders. Were this to happen, the just and
____________
1 Tarikh Ya'aqubi vol. II, pp. 105-150, where this is mentioned often.
2 The Book of God and the sayings of the Holy Prophet and his household are replete with encouragement and exhortation to acquire knowledge, to the extent that the Holy Prophet says, "To seek knowledge is incumbent upon every Muslim" Bihar al-Anwar of Majlisi, Tehran, 1301-15, vol. I, pp 55.
( 57 )
freedom-giving rule of Islam could gradually be converted to dictatorial rule and a completely autocratic government. Moreover, the pure religious teachings could become, as can be seen in the case of certain other religions, the victims of change and distortion in the hands of selfish scholars given to the satisfaction of their carnal desires. As confirmed by the Holy Prophet, 'Ali followed perfectly and completely the Book of' God and the tradition of the Prophet in both words and deeds.
1 As Shi'ism sees it, if, as the majority say, only the Quraysh
2 opposed the rightful caliphate of 'Ali, then that majority should have answered the Quraysh by asserting what was right. They should have quelled all opposition to the right cause in the same way that they fought against the group who refused to pay the religious tax (zakat). The majority should not have remained indifferent to what was right for few of the opposition of the Quraysh.
What prevented the Shi' ah from accepting the elective method of choosing the caliphate by the people was the fear of the unwholesome consequences that might result from it: fear of possible corruption in Islamic government and of the destruction of the solid basis for the sublime religious sciences. As it happened, later events in Islamic history confirmed this fear (or prediction), with the result that the Shiites became even firmer in their belief. During the earliest years, however, because of the small number of its followers, Shi'ism appeared outwardly to have been absorbed into the majority, although privately it continued to insist on acquiring the Islamic sciences from the Household of the Prophet and to invite people to its cause. At the same time, in order to preserve the power of Islam
____________
1 Al-Bidayah wa 'l Nihayah, vol. VII, pp. 360.
2 Editor's note: The Quraysh was the most aristocratic tribe in pre-Islamic Arabia from which rose the Holy Prophet himself. But the Quraysh, being the guardians of the Ka'bah, first opposed his prophecy and offend the greatest resistance against him. Only later did they surrender to the new religion in which they have always continued to hold a place of honor, especially the branch directly connected with the family of the Prophet.
( 58 )
and safeguard its progress, Shi'ism did not display any open opposition to the men of Islamic society. Members of the Shi'ite community even fought hand in hand with the Sunni majority in holy wars (jihad and participated in public affairs. 'Ali himself guided the Sunni majority in the interest of the whole of Islam, whenever such action was necessary.
1
____________
1 Tarikh i Ya'qubi, pp, 111, 126 and 129.
